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Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy or clone of a human. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning, which is the reproduction of human cells and tissue.
It does not refer to the natural stem cell research pros and cons essay and delivery of identical twins.
The possibility of person cloning has raised controversies. These ethical concerns have prompted several nations to pass laws regarding human cloning and its legality. Two commonly discussed types of theoretical human cloning are therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning, stem cell research pros and cons essay.
Therapeutic cloning would involve cloning cells from a human for use in medicine and transplants; it is an active area of research, but is not in medical practice anywhere in the world, as of Two common methods of therapeutic cloning that are being researched are somatic-cell nuclear transfer and more recently pluripotent stem cell induction.
Reproductive cloning would involve making an entire cloned human, instead of just specific cells or tissues. Although the possibility of cloning humans had been the subject of speculation for much of the 20th century, scientists and policymakers began to take the prospect seriously in Haldane was the first to introduce the idea of human cloning, for which he used the terms "clone" and "cloning", [1] which had been used in agriculture since the early 20th century.
In his speech on "Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next Ten Thousand Years" at the Ciba Foundation Symposium on Man and his Future inhe said: [2].
It is extremely hopeful that some human cell lines can be grown on a medium of precisely known chemical composition. Perhaps the first step will be the production of a clone from a single fertilized egg, as in Brave New World Assuming that cloning is possible, I expect that most clones would be made from people aged at least fifty, except for athletes and dancers, who would be cloned younger.
They would be made from people who were held to have excelled in a socially acceptable accomplishment. Nobel Prize-winning geneticist Joshua Lederberg advocated cloning and genetic engineering in an article in The American Naturalist in and again, the following year, in The Washington Post. Watsonpublicized the potential and the perils of cloning in his Atlantic Monthly essay, "Moving Toward the Clonal Man", in With the cloning of a sheep known as Dolly in by somatic cell nuclear transfer SCNTthe idea of human cloning became a hot debate topic.
The first hybrid human clone was created in Novemberby Advanced Cell Technology. It was created using SCNT; a nucleus was taken from a man's leg cell and inserted into a cow's egg from which the nucleus had been removed, and the hybrid cell was cultured and developed into an embryo. The embryo was destroyed after 12 days. In andHwang Woo-suka professor at Seoul National Universitypublished two separate articles in the journal Science claiming to have successfully harvested pluripotent, embryonic stem cells from a cloned stem cell research pros and cons essay blastocyst using SCNT techniques.
Hwang claimed to have created eleven different patient-specific stem cell lines. This would have been the first major breakthrough in human cloning. In JanuaryDr. Andrew French and Samuel Wood of the biotechnology company Stemagen announced that they successfully created the first five mature human embryos using SCNT.
In this case, each embryo was created by taking a nucleus from a skin cell donated by Wood and a colleague and inserting it stem cell research pros and cons essay a human egg from which the nucleus had been removed.
The embryos were developed only to the blastocyst stage, at which point they were studied in processes that destroyed them. Members of the lab said that their next set of experiments would aim to generate embryonic stem cell lines; these are the "holy grail" that would be useful for therapeutic or reproductive cloning.
Inscientists at the New York Stem Cell Foundation announced that they had succeeded in generating embryonic stem cell lines, but their process involved leaving the oocyte 's nucleus in place, resulting in triploid cells, which would not be useful for cloning.
Ina group of scientists led by Shoukhrat Mitalipov published the first report of embryonic stem cells created using SCNT. In this experiment, the researchers developed a protocol for using SCNT in human cells, which differs slightly from the one used in other organisms.
Four embryonic stem cell lines from human fetal somatic cells were derived from those blastocysts. All four lines were derived using oocytes from the same donor, ensuring that all mitochondrial DNA inherited was identical. Inthe first successful cloning of primates using SCNT was reported with the birth of two live female clones, crab-eating macaques named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua. In somatic cell nuclear transfer "SCNT"stem cell research pros and cons essay, the nucleus of a somatic cell is taken from a donor and transplanted into a host egg cellwhich had its own genetic material removed previously, making it an enucleated egg.
After the donor somatic cell genetic material is transferred into the host oocyte with a micropipette, the somatic cell genetic material is fused with the egg using an electric current, stem cell research pros and cons essay.
Once the two cells have fused, the new cell can be permitted to grow in a surrogate or artificially. Creating induced pluripotent stem cells "iPSCs" is a long and inefficient process.
Pluripotency refers to a stem cell that has the potential to differentiate into stem cell research pros and cons essay of the three germ layers : endoderm interior stomach lining, gastrointestinal tract, the lungsmesoderm muscle, bone, blood, urogenitalor ectoderm epidermal tissues and nervous tissue. These factors send signals in the mature cell that cause the cell to become a pluripotent stem cell.
This process is highly studied and new techniques are being discovered frequently on how to better this induction process, stem cell research pros and cons essay.
Depending on the method used, reprogramming of adult cells into iPSCs for implantation could have severe limitations in humans. If a virus is used as a reprogramming factor for the cell, cancer-causing genes stem cell research pros and cons essay oncogenes may be activated.
These cells would appear as rapidly dividing cancer cells that do not respond to the body's natural cell signaling process, stem cell research pros and cons essay.
However, in scientists discovered a technique that could remove the presence of these oncogenes after pluripotency induction, thereby increasing the potential use of iPSC in humans. Both the processes of SCNT and iPSCs have benefits and deficiencies. Historically, reprogramming methods were better studied than SCNT derived embryonic stem cells ESCs.
The major advantage of SCNT over iPSCs at this time is the speed with which cells can be produced. iPSCs derivation takes several months while SCNT would take a much shorter time, stem cell research pros and cons essay, which could be important for medical applications. New studies are working to improve the process of iPSC in terms of both speed and efficiency with the discovery of new reprogramming factors in oocytes. Work on cloning techniques has advanced our basic understanding of developmental biology in humans.
Observing human pluripotent stem cells grown in culture provides great insight into human embryo developmentwhich otherwise cannot be seen. Scientists are now able to better define steps of early human development. Studying signal transduction along with genetic manipulation within the early human embryo has the potential to provide answers to many developmental diseases and defects. Many human-specific signaling pathways have been discovered by studying human embryonic stem cells.
Studying developmental pathways in humans has given developmental biologists more evidence toward the hypothesis that developmental pathways are conserved throughout species. iPSCs and cells created by SCNT are useful for research into the causes of disease, and as model systems used in drug discovery.
Cells produced with SCNT, or iPSCs could eventually be used in stem cell therapy[28] or to create organs to be used in transplantation, known as regenerative medicine. Stem cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition.
Bone marrow transplantation is a widely used form of stem cell stem cell research pros and cons essay. Research is underway to potentially use stem cell therapy to treat heart diseasediabetesand spinal cord injuries. This type of medicine would allow for autologous transplantation, thus removing the risk of organ transplant rejection by the recipient. In bioethicsthe ethics of cloning refers to a variety of ethical positions regarding the practice and possibilities of cloningespecially human cloning.
While many of these views are religious in origin, for instance relating to Christian views of procreation and personhood, [35] the questions raised by cloning engage secular perspectives as well. Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning in order to generate tissues and whole organs to treat patients who otherwise cannot obtain transplants, [36] to avoid the need for immunosuppressive drugs[37] and to stave off the effects of aging. Opposition to therapeutic cloning mainly centers around the status of embryonic stem cellswhich has connections with the abortion debate.
Some opponents of reproductive cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed stem cell research pros and cons essay to be safe — for example, the position of the American Association for the Advancement of Science as of [update][41] while others emphasize that reproductive cloning could be prone to abuse leading to the generation of humans whose organs and tissues would be harvested[42] [43] and have concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.
Members of religious groups are divided. Some Christian theologians perceive the technology as usurping God's role in creation and, to the extent embryos are used, destroying a human life; [35] others see no inconsistency between Christian tenets and cloning's positive and potentially life-saving benefits.
In it was reported that about 70 countries had banned human cloning. There have been consistent calls in Canada to ban human reproductive cloning since the Report of the Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies. Polls have indicated that an overwhelming majority of Canadians oppose human reproductive cloning, though the regulation of human cloning continues to be a significant national and international policy issue.
The notion of "human dignity" is commonly used to justify cloning laws. The basis for this justification is that reproductive human cloning necessarily infringes notions of human dignity. India has already succeeded in mammalian cloning. The first license was granted on August 11,to researchers at the University of Newcastle to allow them to investigate treatments for diabetesParkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. The Act also allows experiments on hybrid human-animal embryos.
In, andthe United States Congress voted whether to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act. Bush in andover therapeutic cloning prevented either competing proposal a ban on both forms or on reproductive cloning only from being passed into law. On March 10,a bill HR was introduced with a section banning federal funding for human cloning.
However, the law was not passed. There are currently no federal laws in the United States which ban cloning completely. Fifteen American states ArkansasCaliforniaConnecticutFloridaGeorgiaIowaIndianaMassachusettsMarylandMichiganNorth DakotaNew JerseyRhode IslandSouth Dakotaand Virginia ban reproductive cloning and three states ArizonaMaryland and Missouri prohibit use of public funds for such activities.
Ten states, California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey and Rhode Island, have "clone and kill" laws that prevent cloned embryo implantation for childbirth, but allow embryos to be destroyed.
Science fiction has used cloning, most commonly and specifically human cloning, due to the fact that it brings up controversial questions of identity. Robin Cook's novel Chromosome 6 and Michael Bay's The Island are examples of this; Chromosome 6 also features genetic manipulation and xenotransplantation. Years later, these clones known as The Tethered reveal themselves to the world by successfully pulling off a mass genocide of their counterparts. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This is the latest accepted revisionreviewed on 22 September Creation of a genetically identical copy of a human.
Main article: Somatic cell nuclear transfer. Main article: Induced pluripotent stem cell. Main article: Ethics of cloning. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. August Further information: Cloning § In popular cultureand Category:Cloning in fiction.
ETHICAL CONCERNS ON STEM CELLS
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